Prime Minister of India

Jawaharlal Nehru (born November 14, 1889, Allahabad, India—died May 27, 1964, New Delhi) was the first prime minister of independent India (1947–64), who established a parliamentary government and became noted for his neutralist (nonaligned) policies in foreign affairs. He was also one of the principal leaders of India's independence movement in the 1930s and '40s.

Early years

Nehru was born to a family of Kashmiri Brahmans, noted for their administrative aptitude and scholarship, who had migrated to Delhi early in the 18th century. He was the son of Motilal Nehru, a renowned lawyer and leader of the Indian independence movement, who became one of Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi's prominent associates. Jawaharlal was the eldest of four children, two of whom were girls. A sister, Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit, later became the first female president of the United Nations General Assembly.

Until 16, Nehru was educated at home by a series of English governesses and tutors. Only one of those—a part-Irish, part-Belgian theosophist, Ferdinand Brooks—appears to have made any impression on him. Jawaharlal also had a venerable Indian tutor who taught him Hindi and Sanskrit. In 1905, he went to Harrow, a leading English school, where he stayed for two years. Nehru's academic career was in no way outstanding. From Harrow, he went to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he spent three years earning an honours degree in natural science. On leaving Cambridge, he qualified as a barrister after two years at the Inner Temple, London, where, in his own words, he passed his examinations "with neither glory nor ignominy."

The seven years Nehru spent in England left him in a hazy half-world, at home neither in England nor India. Some years later, he wrote, "I have become a queer mixture of East and West, out of place everywhere, at home nowhere." He went back to India to discover India. The contending pulls and pressures his experience abroad exerted on his personality were only partially resolved.

Four years after his return to India, in March 1916, Nehru married Kamala Kaul, who also came from a Kashmiri family that had settled in Delhi. Their only child, Indira Priyadarshini, was born in 1917; she would later (under her married name of Indira Gandhi) also serve (1966–77 and 1980–84) as prime minister of India. In addition, Indira's son, Rajiv Gandhi, succeeded his mother as prime minister (1984–89).

Political apprenticeship

On his return to India, Nehru first tried settling down as a lawyer. Unlike his father, however, he had only a desultory interest in his profession and did not relish the practice of law or the company of lawyers. For that time, he might be described, like many of his generation, as an instinctive nationalist who yearned for his country's freedom. However, like most of his contemporaries, he had not formulated any precise ideas for achieving it.

Nehru's autobiography discloses his lively interest in Indian politics while studying abroad. His letters to his father over the same period reveal their shared interest in India's freedom. But only when father and son met Mahatma Gandhi and were persuaded to follow in his political footsteps did they develop definite ideas on how freedom would be attained. The quality of Gandhi that impressed the two Nehrus was his insistence on action. A wrong, Gandhi argued, should not only be condemned but be resisted. Earlier, Nehru and his father had been contemptuous of the run of contemporary Indian politicians, whose nationalism, with a few notable exceptions, consisted of interminable speeches and long-winded resolutions. Jawaharlal was also attracted by Gandhi's insistence on fighting against British rule of India without fear or hate.

Nehru met Gandhi for the first time in 1916 at the annual meeting of the Indian National Congress (Congress Party) in Lucknow. Gandhi was 20 years his senior. Neither has made any initially strong impression on the other. Gandhi needs to mention Nehru in an autobiography he dictated while imprisoned in the early 1920s. The omission is understandable since Nehru's role in Indian politics was secondary until he was elected president of the Congress Party in 1929, presiding over the historic session at Lahore (now in Pakistan) that proclaimed complete independence as India's political goal. Until then, the party's objective had been dominion status.

Nehru's close association with the Congress Party dates from 1919 in the immediate aftermath of World War I. That period saw an early wave of nationalist activity and governmental repression, which culminated in the Massacre of Amritsar in April 1919; according to an official report, 379 persons were killed (though other estimates were considerably higher), and at least 1,200 were wounded when the local British military commander ordered his troops to fire on a crowd of unarmed Indians assembled in an almost completely enclosed space in the city.

When, late in 1921, the prominent leaders and workers of the Congress Party were outlawed in some provinces, Nehru was imprisoned for the first time. Over the next 24 years, he was to serve another eight periods of detention, the last and longest ending in June 1945, after an imprisonment of almost three years. In all, Nehru spent more than nine years in jail. Characteristically, he described his terms of incarceration as everyday interludes in a life of abnormal political activity.

His political apprenticeship with the Congress Party lasted from 1919 to 1929. In 1923, he became the party's general secretary for two years, and he did so again in 1927 for another two years. His interests and duties took him on journeys over vast areas of India, particularly in his native United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh state), where his first exposure to the overwhelming poverty and degradation of the peasantry profoundly influenced his basic ideas for solving those vital problems. Though vaguely inclined toward socialism, Nehru's radicalism had set in no definite mould. The watershed in his political and economic thinking was his tour of Europe and the Soviet Union during 1926–27. Nehru's genuine interest in Marxism and his socialist thought pattern stemmed from that tour, even though it did not increase his knowledge of communist theory and practice. His subsequent sojourns in prison enabled him to study Marxism in more depth. Interested in its ideas but repelled by some of its methods—such as the regimentation and the heresy hunts of the communists—he could never accept Karl Marx's writings as revealed scripture. Yet from then on, the yardstick of his economic thinking remained Marxist, adjusted, where necessary, to Indian conditions.

Struggle for Indian independence

After the Lahore session 1929, Nehru emerged as the country's intellectual and youth leader. Gandhi had shrewdly elevated him to the presidency of the Congress Party over the heads of some of his seniors, hoping that Nehru would draw India's youth—who at that time were gravitating toward extreme leftist causes—into the mainstream of the Congress movement. Gandhi also correctly calculated that, with added responsibility, Nehru himself would be inclined to keep to the middle way.

After his father died in 1931, Nehru moved into the inner councils of the Congress Party and became closer to Gandhi. Although Gandhi did not officially designate Nehru as his political heir until 1942, the Indian populace, as early as the mid-1930s, saw Nehru as the natural successor to Gandhi. The Gandhi-Irwin Pact of March 1931, signed between Gandhi and the British viceroy, Lord Irwin (later Lord Halifax), signalled a truce between India's two principal protagonists. It climaxed one of Gandhi's more effective civil disobedience movements, launched the year before as the Salt March, during which Nehru had been arrested.

Hopes that the Gandhi-Irwin Pact would be the prelude to a more relaxed period of Indo-British relations were not borne out; Lord Willingdon (who replaced Irwin as ruler in 1931) jailed Gandhi in January 1932, shortly after Gandhi's return from the second Round Table Conference in London. He was charged with attempting to mount another civil disobedience movement; Nehru was also arrested and sentenced to two years' imprisonment.

The three Round Table Conferences in London, held to advance India's progress to self-government, eventually resulted in the Government of India Act of 1935, which gave the Indian provinces a system of popular autonomous government. Ultimately, it provided for a federal system composed of autonomous regions and princely states. Although federation never came into being, provincial autonomy was implemented. During the mid-1930s, Nehru was concerned with European developments, which seemed to drift toward another world war. He was in Europe early in 1936, visiting his ailing wife, shortly before she died in a sanitarium in Lausanne, Switzerland. Even then, he emphasized that in the event of war, India's place was alongside the democracies, though he insisted that India could fight in support of Great Britain and France only as a free country.

When the elections following the introduction of provincial autonomy brought the Congress Party to power in most provinces, Nehru faced a dilemma. The Muslim League under Mohammed Ali Jinnah (who was to become the creator of Pakistan) had fared poorly at the polls. Therefore, Congress unwisely rejected Jinnah's plea for forming a coalition Congress–Muslim League governments in some of the provinces, a decision Nehru had supported. The subsequent clash between the Congress and the Muslim League hardened into a conflict between Hindus and Muslims that ultimately led to the partition of India and the creation of Pakistan.

Imprisonment during World War II

At the outbreak of World War II in September 1939, the ruler, Lord Linlithgow, had committed India to war without consulting the autonomous provincial ministries. The Congress Party's high command withdrew its local churches as a protest, but Congress's action left the political field virtually open to Jinnah and the Muslim League. Nehru's views on the war differed from those of Gandhi. Initially, Gandhi believed that whatever support was given to the British should be given unconditionally and that it should be nonviolent. Nehru held that nonviolence had no place in defence against aggression and that India should support Great Britain in a war against Nazism but only as a free country. If it could not help, it should not hinder.

In October 1940, Gandhi, abandoning his original stand, launched a limited civil disobedience campaign in which leading advocates of Indian independence were selected to participate individually. Nehru, the second of those leaders, was arrested and sentenced to four years' imprisonment. After spending a little more than a year in jail, he was released, along with other Congress prisoners, three days before the bombing of Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. When the Japanese carried their attack through Burma (now Myanmar) to the borders of India in the spring of 1942, the British government, faced with that new military threat, decided to make some overtures to India. Prime Minister Winston Churchill dispatched Sir Stafford Cripps, a member of the British War Cabinet who was politically close to Nehru and knew Jinnah, with proposals to settle the constitutional problem. However, Cripps's mission failed because Gandhi would accept nothing less than independence.

The initiative in the Congress Party then passed to Gandhi, who called on the British to leave India; Nehru, though reluctant to embarrass the war effort, had no alternative but to join Gandhi. Following the Quit India resolution passed by the Congress Party in Bombay (now Mumbai) on August 8, 1942, the entire Congress working committee, including Gandhi and Nehru, was arrested and imprisoned. Nehru emerged from that—his ninth and last detention—only on June 15, 1945.

India was to be partitioned and free within two years after his release. A final attempt by the ruler, Lord Wavell, failed to bring the Congress Party and the Muslim League together. Meanwhile, the Labour government that had displaced Churchill's wartime administration dispatched, as one of its first acts, a Cabinet mission to India and later replaced Lord Wavell with Lord Mountbatten. The question was no longer whether India was to be independent but whether it was to consist of one or more independent states. Hindu-Muslim antagonism, culminating in late 1946 in clashes that killed some 7,000 people, made the partition of the subcontinent inevitable. While Gandhi refused to accept it, Nehru reluctantly but realistically acquiesced. On August 15, 1947, India and Pakistan emerged as separate independent countries. Nehru became India's first independent prime minister.

Achievements as prime minister

In the 35 years from 1929, when Gandhi chose Nehru as president of the Congress session at Lahore until he died as prime minister in 1964, Nehru remained—despite the debacle of the brief conflict with China in 1962—the idol of his people. His secular approach to politics contrasted with Gandhi's religious and traditionalist attitude, which during Gandhi's lifetime had given Indian politics a religious cast—misleadingly so, for although Gandhi may have appeared to be a religious conservative, he was a social nonconformist trying to secularize Hinduism. The fundamental difference between Nehru and Gandhi was not in their attitudes toward religion but in their attitudes toward civilization. Whereas Nehru talked in an increasingly modern idiom, Gandhi was harking back to the glories of ancient India.

The importance of Nehru in the perspective of Indian history is that he imported and imparted modern values and ways of thinking, which he adapted to Indian conditions. Apart from his stress on secularism and the essential unity of India, despite its ethnic and religious diversities, Nehru was deeply concerned with carrying India into the modern age of scientific discovery and technological development. In addition, he aroused in his people an awareness of the necessity of social concern for the poor and the outcast and respect for democratic values. One of the achievements of which he was particularly proud was the reform of the ancient Hindu civil code that finally enabled Hindu widows to enjoy equality with men in matters of inheritance and property.

Internationally, Nehru's star was on the ascendant until October 1956, when India's attitude toward the Hungarian Revolution against the Soviets brought his policy of nonalignment (neutralism) under sharp scrutiny by the noncommunist countries. In the United Nations, India was the only nonaligned country to vote with the Soviet Union on the invasion of Hungary, and it was after that difficult for Nehru to command credence in his calls for nonalignment. Anticolonialism had been the cornerstone of his foreign policy in the early years after independence. His interest in the issue waned, however, after Zhou Enlai, the Chinese prime minister, stole the spotlight from him at the Bandung Conference of African and Asian countries that was held in Indonesia in 1955. By the time of the first conference of the Nonaligned Movement in Belgrade, Yugoslavia (now in Serbia), in 1961, Nehru had substituted nonalignment for anticolonialism as his most pressing concern.

However, the month-long Sino-Indian War of 1962 exposed Nehru's wishful thinking on nonalignment. When Chinese forces threatened to overrun the Brahmaputra River valley in the northeast as a result of a long-standing border dispute regarding Arunachal Pradesh state, they exposed the hollowness of Nehru's proclamation, "Hindu-Chini bhai bhai" ("Indians and Chinese are brothers"). Nehru's subsequent call for Western aid made virtual nonsense of his nonalignment policy. China soon withdrew its troops.

The Kashmir region—claimed by both India and Pakistan—remained a perennial problem throughout Nehru's term as prime minister. In the months after the partition of the subcontinent in 1947, he made tentative efforts to settle the dispute between the two new countries while Hari Singh, the maharaja of Kashmir, decided which country he would join. When Singh chose India, however, fighting broke out between the two sides. The UN brokered a cease-fire line in the region, and Nehru proposed territorial adjustments along the line that failed. That distinction became the line of control that still separates the Indian- and Pakistani-administered portions of the region.

Nehru was more fortunate in his efforts to solve the problem of the Portuguese colony of Goa, the last remaining foreign-controlled entity in India. Although its military occupation by Indian troops in December 1961 raised a furore in many Western countries, in hindsight of history, Nehru's action is justifiable. With the British and French withdrawal, the Portuguese colonial presence in India had become an anachronism. Both the British and the French had withdrawn peacefully. If the Portuguese were not prepared to follow suit, Nehru had to find ways to dislodge them. After first trying persuasion, in August 1955, he permitted a group of unarmed Indians to march into Portuguese territory in a nonviolent demonstration. Even though the Portuguese opened fire on the demonstrators, killing nearly 30, Nehru stayed his hand for six years, appealing to Portugal's Western friends to persuade its government to cede the colony. When India finally struck, Nehru could claim that neither he nor the government of India had ever been committed to nonviolence as a policy.

Nehru's health showed signs of deteriorating shortly after the clash with China. He suffered a slight stroke in 1963, and a more debilitating attack followed in January 1964. He died a few months later from a third and fatal stroke.

Legacy

While consciously assertive in his Indianness, Nehru never exuded the Hindu aura and atmosphere clinging to Gandhi's personality. Because of his modern political and economic outlook, he attracted the younger intelligentsia of India to Gandhi's nonviolent resistance movement against the British. He later rallied them around him after gaining independence. Nehru's Western upbringing and visits to Europe before independence had acclimatized him to Western ways of thinking.

Nehru did not conceal his differences with Gandhi on many fundamental social, economic, and political issues. He did not share Gandhi's aversion to industrialization, and he saw that India's early five-year plans after independence were geared toward heavy manufacturing. If Nehru accepted Gandhi's nonviolence, he did so not as a matter of principle but because he regarded nonviolence as a practical political weapon and the right policy for India under the prevailing political conditions.

Of all the leaders of the Congress Party—including Gandhi—Nehru alone had seriously considered India's place in the world community. That enabled him not only to educate the Indian populace on foreign affairs before independence but also to project his views on Indian foreign policy when freedom came. If Gandhi made Indians aware of India, Nehru made them also aware of others. When India achieved independence, the image it presented to the world was Nehru's image: in the early years of Indian nationhood, the world identified India with Nehru.

Throughout his 17 years in the prime minister's office, he held up democratic socialism as the guiding star, emphasizing that India needed to achieve democracy and socialism. With the help of the overwhelming majority that the Congress Party maintained in the parliament during his term of office, he advanced toward that goal. The four pillars of his domestic policies were democracy, socialism, unity, and secularism. He succeeded to a large extent in maintaining the tower supported by those four pillars during his lifetime.

Cyril Burt's remarkable journey began on March 3, 1883, in the quaint town of Ware, Hertfordshire, England. Born into a middle-class family, he was the eldest of five children. From an early age, Burt exhibited exceptional intellectual abilities and a deep curiosity about the workings of the human mind. Encouraged by his parents, he eagerly pursued his education, attending the local grammar school.

His thirst for knowledge led him to secure a scholarship to study mathematics at the University College London in 1901. It was during his time at the university that Cyril Burt's passion for psychology began to blossom. Driven by a desire to understand the complexities of human intelligence, he shifted his academic focus, graduating with a first-class degree in psychology in 1906. Burt's tireless dedication to his studies laid the foundation for his future contributions in the field of psychology, setting the stage for an illustrious career that would revolutionize our understanding of human nature.

Burt's Research Interests

Cyril Burt's research interests encompassed a wide range of topics within the field of psychology. One area that captivated his attention was the study of intelligence. He dedicated substantial time and effort to understanding the complexities of human intelligence, with a particular focus on its measurement and determinants. Burt believed that by unraveling the intricacies of intelligence, it would be possible to gain valuable insights into numerous aspects of human behavior and cognitive functioning. His unique perspective brought a fresh approach to intelligence research, shedding light on the various factors that contribute to intellectual abilities.

In addition to his work on intelligence, Cyril Burt also delved into the field of behavior genetics. He was intrigued by the role of genetics in shaping individual differences and sought to examine the influence of genetic and environmental factors on human traits and behaviors. Twin studies, specifically the comparison of monozygotic and dizygotic twins, were a central aspect of Burt's research in this area. By utilizing twin data, Burt aimed to disentangle the contributions of genes and environment, providing valuable insights into the relative importance of both in shaping various psychological outcomes. His pioneering work in behavior genetics opened up new avenues for understanding the interplay between genetic factors and environmental influences in human development.

Groundbreaking Work in Intelligence Testing

Groundbreaking work in intelligence testing was a seminal contribution made by Cyril Burt to the field of psychology. Burt's research was driven by his fascination with understanding human cognitive abilities and how they could be measured accurately. His studies on intelligence testing not only provided valuable insights into individual differences in intellectual capacity but also laid the foundation for future advancements in this area.

One of Cyril Burt's key achievements in intelligence testing was the development of innovative methods and tools for assessing cognitive abilities. Through meticulous research and analysis, he devised standardized tests that could reliably measure various aspects of intelligence, such as verbal reasoning, spatial awareness, and problem-solving skills. Burt's groundbreaking approach not only revolutionized the field of psychology but also had a far-reaching impact on education, as his tests were widely adopted to evaluate students' aptitude and potential. His work marked a significant milestone in the understanding and measurement of human intelligence, setting the stage for further exploration and advancements in the field.

Development of Factor Analysis

Factor analysis, a statistical method used to examine the relationships between observed variables and underlying latent factors, played a vital role in the development of psychometrics. Pioneered by scientist Charles Spearman in the early 20th century, this groundbreaking technique aimed to uncover the structure of intelligence and relate it to various mental abilities. By analyzing the correlations among multiple variables, Spearman sought to identify underlying factors that could account for the observed patterns of test scores and cognitive abilities.

Spearman's work was inspired by his observation that people who scored well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on others as well. He hypothesized that a general factor, which he called 'g,' was responsible for this pattern of correlations. 'G' represented a person's overall cognitive ability, while specific ability factors, such as numerical or verbal reasoning, were also thought to contribute to individual differences in performance. Through meticulous statistical analyses, Spearman was able to quantify the strength of the relationship between test scores and the underlying factors, providing a means to quantify and compare individuals' cognitive abilities objectively. His pioneering work in factor analysis laid the foundation for further research in intelligence testing and revolutionized the field of psychometrics.

Advancement of Twin Studies

Advancement of Twin Studies:

One of the areas where Cyril Burt made significant contributions was in the field of twin studies. Through his meticulous research, he was able to shed light on the complex interplay between genetics and environment in shaping human traits and behaviors. Burt firmly believed that studying twins offered a unique opportunity to investigate the relative importance of nature and nurture in various aspects of human development.

By examining identical twins, who share 100% of their genetic makeup, and comparing them to fraternal twins, who share only 50% of their genes on average, Burt aimed to understand the extent to which genetic factors contribute to individual differences. His pioneering work on twins paved the way for modern twin studies, which continue to elucidate the relative influences of genes and the environment on a wide range of characteristics, from intelligence to personality traits. Cyril Burt's commitment to rigorous methodology and his innovative approach to analyzing twin data laid the foundation for further advancements in the field, opening up new avenues of research and expanding our understanding of human nature.

Influence on Educational Policy

Burt's significant contributions to the field of psychology extended beyond his research endeavors and directly impacted educational policy. His comprehensive studies on intelligence testing and factor analysis provided valuable insights into how to assess and measure student aptitude effectively. These findings debunked previous misunderstandings and paved the way for the development of more accurate and fair assessment methods.

As a result, Cyril Burt's research greatly influenced educational policy by advocating for standardized intelligence testing in schools. His work highlighted the importance of using objective measures to assess student abilities, rather than relying solely on subjective assessments. This shift in policy had a profound impact on educational systems worldwide, as it encouraged consistency and fairness in evaluating student performance. By championing evidence-based assessment practices, Burt's influence on educational policy enhanced the reliability and validity of the educational system, ultimately benefiting countless students.

Once Robespierre attempted to instill a national religion, in contradiction to his earlier-held beliefs, his people began to turn on him. In a twist of fate worthy ofan Alan is Morissette song, Robespierre was made a few inches shorter by the guillotine in 1794.

claimed the lives of as many as 1.5 million people. Eventually, the Ottomans were forced to surrender to Allied forces.Pasha resigned his Grand Vizier position and fled with the Young Turks. He lived in exile until an assassin finally punched his ticket in 1921.